Prior to the emergence of Neanderthal Man , human beings lived in large herd – like groups . The retention of this herd like existence was predetermined by the extremely low level of the productive forces . Man , armed with the most primitive tools , could provide for his survival only through his association with a large group of humans . Even in the gathering of grasses and fruits such a group was necessary to provide for mutual defence when wild beasts fell upon them . When man adopted hunting as his way of life , the joint efforts of the group of men and women guaranteed a greater measure of success in obtaining the means of subsistence . Labour was having an ever – increasing influence on the development of a communal way of life , while all production activity demanded that human beings band together . Only in a commune was it possible to retain and pass on skills and experience , the basis of production development , to future generations .
Tiahuanaco Tiahuanaco ,erroneously referred to as the Inca Empire , was the largest slave state of America . The history of Tiahuanaco has been grossly distorted . In a number of Latin American and other countries the theory of the ” socialist ” , or even ” communist ” system of Tiahuanaco is taught in the schools and universities . It is not difficult to see through these class – inspired allegations . LuisBoudin of France , one of the chief proponents of this theory , has writ ten the following : ” in this practically socialist system it is often difficult to draw the line between a freeman and a slave . What was the social system of the Incasreally like ? Tiahuanaco encompassed all of present – day Peru and Equador and a great part of Bolivia , Argentina and Chile . The Inca tribe considered themselves to be descendents of the Sun and the Moon and were the ruling tribe of the state . They were headed by a supreme ruler , the Sapa Inca ( Only Inca ) , or Inca . The Inca ruled over millions of his subjects , over peoples and tribes . He was the defender of the slave – own ing class , which consisted of the Inca warrior chieftains , officials and priests . The Incas waged constant wars , subjugating the neighbouring Indian tribes and peoples . They resettled some of them in other lands and turned them into slaves ( ” black people ” ) . According to ancient legend , six thousand Indians were first turned into slaves for taking part in an uprising against the SapaInca . The children of slaves were born into slavery . The commune was the social and economic unit of society . but , as in the countries of Asia and Africa , the status of a freeman in the Inca slave state was not much different from that of a slave . The freemen were compelled to give one third of their harvest to the Inca and another third to the Sun ( the priests ) ; besides , they had to support the local chieftains . Thus , the tiller could retain less than a third of what he produced . The communes were charged with keep ing the irrigation systems in good repair , with building new canals , providing workers for the mines , road repair and construction . Freemen were not allowed to trayelfreely , they were only permitted to eat the foods the officials and chieftains decreed they could and had to wear a specific type of clothing . The Sapa Inca , the Inca nobility , the priests and the nobility of the tribes that had voluntarily accepted Inca rule lived in glittering splendour in magnificent palaces and temples lavishly adorned with gold and precious stones and built by slaves and freemen . A staggering amount of material values created by the freemen and slaves and appropriated by the slave – owning Inca state was used for the upkeep of the great army and state apparatus . The history of Tiahuanaco is full of incidents reflecting a bitter class struggle . One such incident was the mutiny of the conquered tribes against the despotion .The Tiahuanaco civilisation was very advanced for its time . Irrigated agriculture was the basis of the Inca economy . There were numerous canals , the mountain slopes were trans formed into vast irrigated terraces by the skilful hands of the labourers . There is indication , that the inhabitants of Tiahaanacoeven watered their meadows . The Incas raised numer ous vegetables , among them maize and manioc , several varie ties of potatoes , pepper , medicinal herbs , etc. They used guano for fertiliser . Unlike the various other regions of America , animal hus bandry was widely developed , with the llama and similar breeds most popular : there were also several varieties of domestic fowl . The majority of llama herds were the sole . inviolable property of the Sapa Inca . The Incas used their great herds of llamas as beasts of burden : like the other peoples of America , they did not know the use of the wheel , though they did know the geometric representation of a circle . The Inca weavers , builders , potters and smelters were exquisite masters of their trade . Inca buildings were all but indestructible . The Incas reduced and refined gold , copper , lead and tin . Existing data lead us to believe that they knew how to smelt meteorite iron ore and were about to produce their first iron from ore . The vast territory of the Inca state was criss – crossed by broad ( 5-6 metres ) roads . There were bridges , most of which were suspension bridges . across the rivers and .gorges that crossed the roads . Water transport was one of the major means of transporta tion . There were skilfully made dug – outs and sailing boats . as well as rafts which sailed up and down the rivers and lakes . The Incas also embarked on distant sea voyages on their great rafts . There is good reason to believe that Inca seafarers reached Central America and Mexico . Though these voyages were aimed at extending trade , both home and foreign trade was at a low level of development . Barter was the chief farm of trade . The monetary unit in use was a The Incas , as the Mayas , had a hieroglyphic system of weiting . However , it was known only to the Sapa Inca and a small number of high officials and priests . There were various commonly known means of transmitting informa tion and keeping accounts , and the most widely accepted system was the so called knotted cord writing known asquipu . . There were oral literary works and the dance , music , and sculpture were all highly developed . Dramatic presentations were very popular . The Inca calendar had 365 days and was divided into 12 months , each of which was divided into four ” weeks ” . The year began with the December opposition . Tiahuanaco and its flourishing civilisation fell victim to the Spanish invaders who profited by the lack of unity among the various Indian tribes . Equally important was the suprem acy of Spanish arms . The Indians had never seen firearms or horses and during the first battles especially both wrought terror in the Indian camp .
By the middle of the 19th century the natural and social sciences had reached such a level of development that it was possible to create a truly scientific philosophy – a science about the most general laws of development of nature and society . The natural sciences showed that the world had not been created by anybody , but had developed according to its own laws . For example , physics discovered the law of universal gravitation which governs all natural phenomena , while chemistry discovered the law of conservation of matter , according to which nothing is created in the world and nothing disappears without leaving a trace , everything merely changing the form of its existence . The advance of natural sciences helped the further development of materialism and dialectics . The greatest contribution to materialist philosophy was made by the German philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach ( 1804 1872 ) . Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ( 1770-1831 ) , another German philosopher , generalised the method used by the modern sciences in analysing the phenomena of nature and society and raised dialectics to a new level ; according to Hegelian dialectics everything must be considered from the point of view of continuous change and development . However , neither Feuerbach nor Hegel could create a truly scientific philosophy . Feuerbach , for example , did not recognise dialectics and thereby rejected the method of cognition used by science , whereas Hegel adhered to idealist positions and persisted in the opinion that , according to the laws of dialectics , it was not nature and society , but some Absolute Idea that developed . Moreover , he limited the development of this idea to the creation of the Prussian constitutional monarchy , considering it the highest expression of the Absolute Idea and the acme of development of society .
Some philosophers , absorbed in mathematics , a science which demands a great amount of abstract thought , became the protagonists of an idealist trend in philosophy . They used mathematics to construct various idealistic concepts ; thus , they evolved the ” magic ” of numbers . Pythagoras and his followers ( 6th century B.C. ) were the first idealist – philosophers . They imbued figures and mathematical concepts with mystical qualities . According to their beliefs , the number ” 1 ” stood for evil , ” 2 ” stood for good , ” 10 ” was perfection , etc. Representatives of the idealist school in the city of Eleia , a Greek coldhy in Southern Italy , attempted to prove the immobility of all matter .
The Functions of the State The main function of the slave state ( as of all other exploit er systems ) was the suppression of the exploited . In order to capture new slaves the slave states waged constant wars , plundering the defeated peoples , turning them into tributaries or slaves . Herein lies the second function of any state based on the exploitation of man by man : the expansion of its territory . The state carries out its functions with the aid of a state apparatus . To begin with , the state adopted some clan and tribal institutions ; however , they no longer reflected the interests of the entire clan or tribe but only those of a small group of clan elders and tribal chieftains who eventually became hereditary rulers . The military force of the primitive , communal system was composed of all the able – bodied members of the clan , while in a slave system there appeared a new force , removed from the people and standing in opposition to it : a paid army whose duty it was to defend the rapacious , egotistic interests of the slave – owners . The courts appeared in like manner , the guardians of the interests of an insignificant part of society , the slave – owners , not the interests of society as a whole . The clergy were an integral part of the state apparatus , as were the overseers , guards , scribes , collectors of duties , taxes , etc. The former division of the population along lines of blood relationship was now supplanted by an administrative and territorial division .
The nature of production relations determines the economic system of a given society . This economic system is the basis on which the various social relations , ideas and institutions arise , for the mode of production eventually determines all aspects of life in a given society . First , the basis determines the political and legal institutions and organisations which depend upon the class structure of society ( the state , church , political parties , etc . ) – everything that constitutes the political superstructure of society . Then it determines the various ideas of society ( political , legal , philosophical , religious , artistic , etc . ) – everything that constitutes the ideological super structure of society . Since the basis determines the superstructure , it follows that every change of basis entails a change in superstructure , i.e. , in the existing political institutions and ideology . How ever , the superstructure , though dependent upon the basis , can in turn influence production relations and can either accelerate or delay their replacement . Every society is thus an integral organism , a socio – economic formation , a definite historical type of society with its own distinctive mode of production , basis and superstructure . The basis of the slave state , as of the feudal and capitalist states , is antagonistic , since it is founded on private owner ship of the means of production and the exploitation by the ruling class of the producers of material values . That is why the socio – economic formation of the slave state in general is an antagonistic , exploiter formation .
Beginning of the Working – Class Movement in France
Although the bourgeois revolution in France destroyed the foundations of feudalism , it left quite a few of its survivals in economic and political life . Politically France was a more backward country , its monarchy having been restored after the defeat of Napoleon . The power of the king was restricted by parliament consisting of two chambers – the chamber of peers , whose members were appointed by the king , and the chamber of deputies who were elected by persons with annual incomes of at least 300 francs and living in the given area for a definite length of time . The deputies had to have an annual income of at least 1,000 francs . Naturally , that predetermined the composition of the parliament which acted in concert with the king and in the interests of the landowners . The king and parliament encouraged high prices heavy industry . on timber , of which charcoal was then being made for metallurgy , and thereby hampered the development of the The French government was also opposed to any agrarian reform . Agriculture played the most important part in the life of the country because industry was not yet sufficiently developed . But it was a small – scale , scattered agriculture , and capitalist methods of production were used only on one – third of the cultivated lands . Further development of agriculture was hindered by the half – rent system , according to which the tenant had to give the landowner half the crop . The tenants were therefore not interested in increasing the yield and the marketable surplus of agricultural production . Moreover , the government imposed on the peasant economies excessively high taxes which hampered the develop ment of commodity production . Further development of the French economy depended on a change in the political system , which was demanded by the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat . The French proletariat had gone through a good school of struggle against despotism and oppression and therefore actively joined the struggle against the existing system . The most class – conscious proletarians joined political clubs organised by the radical bourgeoisie . These clubs discussed the inter nal situation in the country and elaborated a programme for setting up a new government . But even the radical bourgeoisie refused to consider questions of raising the Wages , shortening the working day , improving the housing conditions , etc. The workers therefore began to organise their own clubs and to discuss the questions which were of interest to them . But they did not confine themselves to mere discussions . Driven to despair by their distressing material conditions , they often rose in arms against the existing system and their employers . For example , in 1831 the workers came out into the streets of Lyons demanding a raise in wages , but were fired upon by the troops . The workers seized arms , captured the city and established their own rule . The uprising was soon suppressed , but the Paris workers revolted the very next year , and in 1833 the proletarians of Lyons rose in arms again .
The Lyons uprisings showed that a new political force the working class – had entered upon the historical arena ; the workers began to realise that the interests of the bourgeoisie were opposed to the interests of the proletariat . After the Lyons uprisings the government passed a law prohibiting working – class organisations . The workers began to organise illegal societies . An organisation called Seasons and numbering about 4,000 or 5,000 members came into existence in Paris in 1839. The organisation was not connect ed with the masses and that was why , when its adherents tried to seize power on May 12 , 1839 , they were able to capture only the town hall with one police post , after which they were dispersed by gendarmes . The French government stubbornly refused to consider the demands of the people . The discontent with the government’s policy increased with each passing day . A revolution was impending in France .
The idealist interpretation of the history of society in the Middle Ages is in complete opposition to the materialist understanding of the development of feudalism and its stages .
The term Middle Ages also exists in bourgeois literature , having been introduced by the Italian humanists as a means of indicating the intermediary period between the cultures of Greek and Roman Antiquity and the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries in the 15th – 16th centuries . Later , through the works of Bourgeois authors , this division into ancient history , the history of the Middle Ages and modern history was established . However , the majority of Western scholars do not relate these terms to any definite socio – economic processes but regard them merely as condi tional names . Some bourgeois scholars believe that the Middle Ages begin with the onset of the Christian era , others , with the 5th century , the time of the fall of Western Roman Empire . They also hold different views on the period which ends the Middle Ages : from the 14th to the 16th centuries . Withal , their chief aim is to prove that there was no revolutionary upheaval in social relations in the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages . Various bourgeois authors approach this question in accord ance with their own political beliefs . Two questions have been at the centre of the dispute : the significance of the invasion of the German tribes and the historical role of the German commune ( mark ) in regard to the states that emerged on the territory of the former Roman Empire . Waitz , Sohm , Brunner and other 19th – century chauvinist German historians portrayed the fall of the Roman Empire as the triumph of the German ” national spirit ” over the decadent Roman society , never mentioning the role of the commune in estab lishing new social relations . The French historian Fustel de Coulanges ( late 19th century ) ignored the very existence of the agricultural commune . In his attempt to prove the eternal nature of the wealthy class and the exploitation of the masses by the aristocracy he was a proponent of the so – called patri monial theory . He stated , without any proof , that the mark had never existed and that the patrimony was allegedly the basis of the medieval economy ; ” he further contended that it had appeared , fully formed , in the Middle Ages from the Later Roman Empire . Fustel de Coulanges , Du Bos , and the English historian Seeboh all denied the fact that the German tribes had con quered the Roman Empire , stating that what had actually occurred was a gradual penetration of Roman society by the
believe feudalism is not a system of definite social relations , but an extremely conditional term which stood for different things at different times . In their opinion feudalismi is , firstly , a ” method of administration ” and not an economic and social system , and , moreover , a method which kept changing ; feudalism was allegedly related to landownership , the fief , in name only . They held that the political rule of the feudal lord was in no way connected with any social or economic processes . That is why with equal facility they find feudalism in Meso potamia and Ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium B.C. and in China , on the Arabian Peninsula and in Western and Eastern Europe in the 1st millennium B.C. , while India and Russia , according to these historians , allegedly by – passed feudalism completely . This outlook is typical of those bourgeois historians who deny the scientific periodicity of history and ignore the facts of reality , both in the past and in the future , if they do not comply with their political beliefs .
Utopian Socialism Until the middle of the 19th century the workers were for the most part under the influence of bourgeois ideas or were guided by ideas of utopian socialism . Utopian socialism originated much earlier , with the appearance of capitalism and the working class . It expressed primarily the protest of the working class against oppression and exploitation , and its striving to establish a new and just system . The first and communism representatives of utopian socialism Thomas More ( 1478-1535 ) , Tomaso Campanella ( 1568 1639 ) , FranΓ§ois Noel Babeuf ( 1760-1797 ) , Morelli and others seriously criticised the shortcomings of the exploiter society and suggested a number of ideas about organising a new and just society . In their opinion the new society must establish equality of all people in all walks of life – political , economic and spiritual . What they could not say , however , was how this new society should be created . As a rule , they pictured the new society as something removed from real life . For example , Thomas More placed his new society on an imaginary island called Utopia , and since then the word utopia has become a synonym for everything unreal and unattainable . In the 19th century utopian socialism further developed by Saint – Simon ( 1760-1825 ) , Charles Fourier ( 1772-1837 ) and Robert Owen ( 1771-1858 ) . They saw the contradictions of capitalist society and justly held that the bourgeois revolution had brought the working people neither freedom , nor equality , nor yet fraternity , although these revolution . The utopian socialists was demands had been inscribed on the banner of the bourgeois branded capitalism , exposed its sores and vices , and opposed to it the ideal of a new social system without exploitation and social antago nisms . The utopian socialists of the 19th century recognised the importance of developing production in order that the socialist principle of distribution according to labour might be carried into effect and the basic needs of the people might be satisfied . They even ventured to suggest a definite way of transition from capitalist society to socialist society . Fourier , for example , believed it necessary to organise phalanges . He borrowed this idea from Philip of Macedon , ancient Greek military leader who lined up his troops in separate shock groups – phalanges . According to Fourier , the new society must be organised in a manner of the phalanges ; it must consist of communities of 300-400 families ( about 1,500-1,600 people ) building their life on socialist principles . The example set by these communities was supposed to 6 Β° convince the other people of the necessity of building a new society . After publishing his book , setting forth the main ideas about building the new society , Fourier hoped to find a ” good ” capitalist , who would voluntarily give up his capital , and enthusiasts who would want to work in order to build the new society , i.e. , to create a phalange . He asked for volunteers to call on him at any time , but nobody called as long as he lived . Fourier died without ever understanding why his idea had not met with approval . Saint – Simon even invested his money in setting up a small society and tried to arrange life in it on new principles , but that society soon changed to a usual capitalist enterprise with all its contradictions . Why did the utopian socialists fail ? They failed because they had not created a true science about society . In their theories they rested a good deal upon the bourgeois ideas that human nature is invariable and that society is always governed by the same laws . They thought that social laws were like physical laws ; they made no distinctions between capitalists and workers and held that all people could be divided into good ones and bad ones . They believed that , as similar charges repelled and opposite charges attracted each other in nature , people with similar inclinations were unable to get along with each other and those with different tendencies got along very well in society . This erroneous application of physical laws to the study of society was due not only to the influence of bourgeois ideas , but also to the inadequate development of the social and natural sciences of that time and the low level of development of capitalism and the working – class movement , which made it impossible to work out a scientific theory of social development . The utopian socialists could not uncover the laws govern ing the development of capitalist society and find the social force capable of becoming the creator of the new society .
Capitalism Society 